سؤال قراءة ستيب محلول — فهم التفاصيل (تدريب 6119)

(1) The earliest psychologists that we know about are the Greek philosophers Plato (327-428 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These philosophers asked many of the same questions that today’s psychologists ask; for instance, they questioned the distinction between nature and nurture and the existence of free will. In terms of the former, Plato argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn, whereas Aristotle was more on the nurture side, believing that each child is born as an “empty slate” (in Latin a tabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily acquired through learning and experience. (2) European philosophers continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance. For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) also considered the issue of free will, arguing in its favor and believing that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland in the brain (an idea that made some sense at this time but was later proved incorrect). Descartes also believed in the existence of innate natural abilities. A scientist as well as a philosopher, Descartes dissected animals and was among the first to understand that the nerves controlled the muscles. He also addressed the relationship between mind the mental aspects of life) and body (the physical aspects of life). Descartes believed in the principle of dualism that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body. Other European philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Jolm Locke (1632-1704), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). also weighed in on these issues. psychologist Wundt (1832–1920), who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig Germany. and the American psychologist William James (1842–1910), who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University. (3) Wundt’s research in his Laboratory in Liepzig focused on the of consciousness Itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our conscious experiences scientifically. Wundt began the field know as structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal was to Identify the basic elements or «structures» of psychological experience. Its goal was to create a «periodic table» of the «elements of sensations» similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently created in chemistry. (4) Structural used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness Introspection involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks. such as viewing colors. reading a page in a book or performing a math problem. instance, that he saw some black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background. In other studies, the structuralists used newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to do so. Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what sound they had just heard that to simply respond that they had heard the sound. These studies marked the first-time researchers realized that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus, and the idea of using reaction time to study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive psychology. (5) Perhaps the best known of the structurnlists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener was a student of Wundt who came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Comell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000 sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste. (6) An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was rigorous and scientific. The research marked the beginning of psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental events could be quantified. But the fundamental problem that these philosophers faced was that they had few methods for settling their claims. Most philosophers didn’t conduct any research on these questions. In part because they didn’t yet know how to do it, and in part because they weren’t sure it was even. What does Descartes’ principle of duality deal with?