سؤال قراءة ستيب محلول — فهم التفاصيل (تدريب 8009)

Ancient Instruments and Measuring the Stars 1) The most ancient device found in all early civilizations, is a "shadow stick". The shadow cast from a shadow stick was used to observe the motion of the Sun and thus to tell time. Today we call this instrument a Gnomon. The name gnomon comes from the Greek and refers to any L-shaped instrument, originally used to draw a right angle. 2) In Euclid Book II, where Euclid deals with the transformation of areas, the gnomon takes the form of an "L-shaped" area touching two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Today, a gnomon is the vertical rod or similar device that makes the shadow on a sundial. 3) The Merkhet is one of the oldest known astronomical instruments. It was developed around 600 BCE and uses a plumb line to obtain a true vertical. Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers were able to measure the altitude and lateral displacement of heavenly objects from a particular direction by using a Merkhet, thus giving the earliest ideas of turning, or angle. 4) A pair of merkhets were used to establish a North-South direction by lining them up, one behind the other, with the Pole Star. Viewing the plumb lines through the sight made sure the two merkhets and the sight were in the same straight line with the Pole Star. Using a water clock to determine timings, this arrangement of merkhets allowed people to take measurements of night-time events, for example times when certain stars crossed the vertical plumb line (a "transit line"). 5) The Egyptians divided the 360 degrees of the ecliptic into 36 sections of 10 degrees each. This division was known before 2300 BCE. Each ten-degree section (called a decan from the Greek for ten) contained a constellation of stars lined up along the ecliptic. Since the Earth makes a full rotation in 24 hours, the stars in a new decan will rise above the horizon about every 40 minutes. The system of decans was used for determining the night hours and the seasons. Babylonian Astronomers 6) Observations of celestial bodies by the Babylonians from about 1,800 BCE gave rise to the eventual division of the circle into 360 degrees, and by about 500 BCE, the division of the heavens into twelve regions of 30 degrees each, often referred to as the 12 houses of the zodiac. The Babylonians recorded the events of the lunar month, the daily movement of the sun across the sky over the year, and the rising and setting of the major planets. So, by 750 BCE astronomers had a reasonably accurate means of measuring the elevation (latitude) and lateral direction (longitude) of all objects in the heavens. They built up an extensive collection of data, and made tables of the positions of objects in the sky at any given time through a year (these tables are called ephemerides). 7) Using observational techniques like heliacal rising, which occurs when a planet, star or other body first becomes visible above the eastern horizon at dawn, it was discovered that: • the constellations of the zodiac completed a full circle through the sky once a year • the Sun's apparent movement daily across the sky formed 1360 of a circle • the moon moved through about 13360 of a circle each day • the Ecliptic was inclined to the horizon (about 2312 degrees) • planets were travelling through the starry background in regular paths that were sometimes moving back on themselves in a loop (retrograde) • eclipses of the moon and the sun could be predicted • transits of planets (e.g., Venus) moving across the face of the sun, and occultations (where the moon covered the stars) could be observed. These observations continued over many centuries, slowly becoming more accurate, so that ancient people were able to make star maps, and detect the regular events in the heavens. 8) Many seasonal phenomena like the flooding of the Nile, or special events like religious ceremonies were linked to astronomical phenomena. The ability to predict some of these major astronomical events gave rise to astrology, where people believed that there was a link between heavenly and earthly events, and that the stars had some control over their lives. See this BBC news item about a prehistoric star map. 9) The Babylonians and Chinese both believed that the earth and the moon were spherical, that the earth and the moon rotated on an axis, and that the sun and the planets moved in circles round the earth. This enabled them to be able to explain the phases of the moon, and predict eclipses of the moon and the sun by believing that the earth cast a shadow on the moon, and the moon cast a shadow over the sun. They were able to predict paths of other objects across the sun, for example the transit of Venus, a description and explanation of which can be found on Wikipedia. 10) The Babylonian astronomers recorded astronomical data systematically and by the Seleucid period (330-125BCE) there were a great many astronomical tablets showing ephemerides for the moon and the major planets. Many of the tablets contain "procedures" or instructions for how to calculate intervals between astronomical events using the properties of simple arithmetic progressions. These procedural processes were the earliest steps of a mathematical astronomy, and both the procedures and the data were used by those who came later. The Babylonians wrote down lists of numbers, in what we would call an arithmetic progression and recognized that numbers repeated themselves over periods of time. Chinese Astronomy 11) The Chinese were the most accurate observers of celestial phenomena before the Arabs. "Oracle Bones" with star names engraved on them dating back to the Chinese Bronze Age (about 2,000 BCE) have been found, and very old star maps have been found on pottery, engraved on stones, and painted on the walls of caves. Surviving records of astronomical observations made by two astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De date from the 4th century BCE. 12) Shi Shen wrote a book on astronomy, and made a star map and a star catalogue. In 364 BCE Gan De made the first recorded observation of sunspots, and the moons of Jupiter and they both made accurate observations of the five major planets. Their observations were based on the principle of the stars rotating about the pole (equivalent to the earth rotating on its axis). 13) The oldest star map found so far is from Dunhuang. Earlier thought to date from about 940 CE, it was made with precise mathematical methods by the astronomer and mathematician Li Chunfeng (602-670) and shows 1339 stars in 257 Chinese star groups with a precision between 15 and 4 degrees of arc. In all there are 12 charts each in 30-degree sections displaying the full sky visible from the Northern hemisphere. Up to now it is the oldest complete preserved star atlas discovered from any civilization. It has been on display this year in the British Library to celebrate 2009 as the International Year of Astronomy. 14) Some elements of Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism (25 220 CE). Later, during the period (618-907 CE) a number of Indian astronomers came to live in China and Islamic astronomers collaborated closely with their Chinese counterparts particularly during (1271-1368). 15) Very little of the knowledge of the Indians and the Chinese was known in Europe before the Portuguese navigators and the Jesuit scientist Matteo Ricci in the fifteenth century. Babylonian astronomy contributed direct empirical data as a foundation for Greek theory and exactly the same data which provided the information for the "zig-zag" data results in Babylonian theory were used to calculate the mean motions of the sun and moon by Hipparchus.